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| Marilyn Munroe |
'Film
has been called an instrument of the male gaze, producing
representations of women, the good life, and sexual fantasy from a male
point of view' (Schroeder 1998, 208). The concept derives from a seminal
article called Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema by Laura
Mulvey, a feminist film theorist. It was published in 1975 and is one of
the most widely cited and anthologized (though certainly not one of the
most accessible) articles in the whole of contemporary film theory.
Laura Mulvey did not undertake empirical studies of actual filmgoers,
but declared her intention to make ‘political use’ of Freudian
psychoanalytic theory (in a version influenced by Jacques Lacan) in a
study of cinematic spectatorship.
Such psychoanalytically-inspired studies of 'spectatorship' focus on how 'subject positions'
are constructed by media texts rather than investigating the viewing
practices of individuals in specific social contexts. Mulvey notes that
Freud had referred to (infantile) scopophilia - the pleasure involved in looking at other people’s bodies as (particularly, erotic) objects.
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| Rita Hayworth |
In the darkness of the cinema auditorium it is notable
that one may look without being seen either by those on screen by other
members of the audience. Mulvey argues that various features of cinema
viewing conditions facilitate for the viewer both the voyeuristic
process of objectification of female characters and also the narcissistic process of identification with
an ‘ideal ego’ seen on the screen. She declares that in patriarchal
society ‘pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and
passive/female’ (Mulvey 1992, 27).
This
is reflected in the dominant forms of cinema. Conventional narrative
films in the ‘classical’ Hollywood tradition not only typically focus on
a male protagonist in the narrative but also assume a male spectator.
‘As the spectator identifies with the main male protagonist, he projects
his look onto that of his like, his screen surrogate, so that the power of the male protagonist as he controls events coincides with the active power of the erotic look, both giving a satisfying sense of omnipotence’.
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| Halle Berry |
Traditional
films present men as active, controlling subjects and treat women as
passive objects of desire for men in both the story and in the audience,
and do not allow women to be desiring sexual subjects in their own
right. Such films objectify women in relation to ‘the controlling male
gaze’, presenting ‘woman as image’ (or ‘spectacle’) and man as ‘bearer of the look’. Men do the looking; women are there to be looked at.
The cinematic codes of popular films ‘are obsessively subordinated to
the neurotic needs of the male ego’. It was Mulvey who coined the term
'the male gaze'.
Both
Steve Neale and Richard Dyer (1982) challenge the idea that the male
is never sexually objectified in mainstream cinema and argued that the
male is not always the looker in control of the gaze. Since the 1980s
there has been an increasing display and sexualisation of the male body
in mainstream cinema, television and advertising (Moore 1987, Evans
& Gamman 1995, Mort 1996, Edwards 1997). Gender is not the only
important factor in determining what Jane Gaines calls 'looking
relations' - race andclass are also key factors (Lutz
& Collins 1994, 365; Gaines 1988; de Lauretis 1987; Tagg 1988;
Traube 1992). Ethnicity was found to be a key factor in differentiating
amongst different groups of women viewers in a study of Women Viewing Violence (Schlesinger et al. 1992). Michel Foucault, who linked knowledge with power, related the 'inspecting gaze' to power rather than to gender in his discussion of surveillance(Foucault 1977).
Slideshare Presentation on Laura Mulvey
Scouting For Girls: She's So Lovely
